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The origin of carbon-rich planetary systems lies at the intersection of chemistry, physics, and time. Protoplanetary disks, composed of gas and dust around young stars, undergo rapid evolution that alters the availability and distribution of carbon-bearing species. Turbulent mixing, temperature gradients, and the flux of ultraviolet radiation shape the chemical network, promoting or suppressing the formation of carbon-rich solids such as aromatic compounds and graphite-like grains. In particular, the partitioning of carbon between volatile and refractory forms governs how much carbon can be incorporated into growing planetesimals. The interplay between gas-phase reactions and surface chemistry on dust grains leads to a diverse inventory of carbon compounds that seed the next generation of worlds.

A central question concerns how initial disk composition translates into planetary compositions. Carbon-rich outcomes require a favorable balance: sufficient carbon-bearing volatiles in the solid phase, stable delivery of carbon-rich solids to the inner disk, and limited dilution by carbon-poor material. Disk evolution, including accretion-driven heating and photoevaporation, reshapes the available reservoir over time. Observationally, spectroscopy reveals tracers such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and complex organic molecules, which trace different physical zones of the disk. Theoretical models must couple disk dynamics with chemistry to predict where carbon-rich planetesimals are most likely to form, and how their growth tracks diverge from more familiar silicate-dominated systems.

The first key insight is that metallicity influences carbon chemistry through dust content and cooling efficiency. Higher metallicity often implies more dust grains, which provide surfaces for chemical reactions and enable the agglomeration of carbon-rich solids. At the same time, abundant carbon-bearing molecules can be locked into ices on grain surfaces in cooler regions, later releasing carbon during warming events. The balance between freeze-out and desorption controls when and where carbonaceous materials become part of growing bodies. Additionally, disk ionization from stellar radiation and cosmic rays affects the coupling between gas and dust, modifying the transport and aggregation of carbon-rich species across the disk.

Another critical factor is disk temperature structure. The snow lines for species like CO and methane define regions where volatile carbon compounds transition to solid form. The location of these lines evolves as the disk cools and as the star’s luminosity changes. If the CO snow line migrates inward, more carbon can be sequestered into solids in the planet-forming zone. This migration, combined with radial drift of icy grains, concentrates carbon-rich material in particular annuli, enhancing the probability of forming carbon-dense planetesimals. Moreover, temperature gradients influence the crystallinity of carbon grains, altering their stickiness and subsequent collisional growth rates.

Gas dynamics, including viscous spreading and pressure bumps, play a decisive role in delivering carbon-rich material to the inner disk. Regions with positive pressure gradients trap drifting grains, allowing carbonaceous solids to accumulate and grow while gas is depleted. This localized concentration fosters efficient coagulation into larger bodies, potentially skipping intermediate steps that would otherwise disperse material. Magnetic fields, through magnetorotational instability, can generate zonal flows that organize solids into rings. Such structures may act as nurseries for carbon-rich planetesimals, setting up a architecture where carbon dominates the material budget in specific orbital zones.

The chemistry within these transport-influenced zones also matters. Surface reactions on dust grains, including hydrogenation and carbonization, build up complex organic and aromatic molecules. UV processing and cosmic-ray irradiation can transform simple carbon species into more robust solid compounds, increasing the carbon inventory available for incorporation into solids. The resulting chemistry is sensitive to grain size distribution, porosity, and the presence of ice mantles. Models that integrate grain evolution with chemical networks reveal how carbon-rich materials can survive transport bottlenecks and persist long enough to seed planet formation.

When aiming to detect carbon-rich planets indirectly, observers look for signatures of carbon-dominated solids in disks. Emission features from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, amorphous carbon, and crystalline carbon grains may reveal cartographic maps of carbon reservoirs. High-resolution imaging can identify rings and gaps that correspond to pressure traps where carbon-rich solids accumulate. Spectroscopic surveys targeting CO isotopologues and hydrocarbons help distinguish regions where carbon remains in gas versus solid form. By comparing disks around stars of varying ages and masses, researchers can infer how common carbon-rich pathways are and how they evolve with time.

Theoretical work helps connect disk properties to planet composition. Simulations that couple hydrodynamics with thermo-chemical evolution show how carbon-rich solids migrate and concentrate. They explore scenarios in which icy mantles decompose, releasing carbon into the solid phase, or where grain-grain collisions fragment volatile aggregates into more stable carbon-rich materials. These studies emphasize sensitivity to initial conditions such as disk mass, metallicity, and turbulence levels. They also highlight critical transition points, where small changes in temperature or irradiation dramatically shift the carbon budget available for planet formation.

If carbon-rich solids accumulate efficiently, planetary embryos can form with strong carbon cores or envelopes rich in carbon-bearing compounds. Such planets may have atmospheres dominated by methane, carbon monoxide, or other hydrocarbons, depending on thermochemical conditions. A carbon-rich mantle could influence mantle rheology, tectonics, and outgassing, with implications for surface conditions and potential habitability. However, carbon-rich planets likely differ in internal structure and density, which will reflect in detectable mass-radius relationships. Distinguishing these worlds from silicate-dominated planets requires precise measurements and careful modeling of composition versus internal structure.

The formation history also interacts with migration processes. Planets forming in a carbon-enriched annulus can migrate inward or outward, reshaping the distribution of carbon across the inner system. If migration is rapid, carbon-rich material might be delivered to proximal zones where it could be accreted by growing planets or lost to the star. Slower migration could preserve carbon-rich reservoirs farther out, influencing the architecture of the entire system. The ultimate carbon inventory depends on the balance between accretion, fragmentation, and inward drift over millions of years.

Understanding carbon-rich disk chemistry informs both theory and observation. By constraining the conditions that favor carbon accumulation, researchers can design targeted campaigns with next-generation telescopes to test predictions. Spectral lines of key carbon carriers, changes in dust emissivity, and azimuthal asymmetries in disk brightness provide clues about where carbon-rich solids lie. Cross-disciplinary work combining astrochemistry, planetary science, and computational astrophysics will refine our picture of how carbon-rich planetary systems emerge from common, evolving disks.

In the long run, unveiling the formation conditions for carbon-rich planets helps place our own solar system in context. Although Earth’s composition is not carbon-dominated, trace processes and local variations illuminate a broader spectrum of planetary outcomes. Studying diverse disks offers a window into the range of possible worlds and the physical laws that govern their birth. As observational capabilities advance, the interplay between theory and data will sharpen our understanding of carbon’s role in planet formation and the variety of architectures that can arise in protoplanetary disks.